Evaluation of Iraq war through group think Essay Example for Free

Evaluation of Iraq war through group think auditionThe War on Iraq was decided by a small group of people that was headed by the President and settled of the Vice-President, Defense Secretary, CIA Director and other senior administrative officials. The end to go to war was a decision of a small think-tank rather than of an individual or a larger group of people. The decision of the think-tank displace the compositors case for the Iraq War seems to be an apt example of confirmation bias. This confirmation bias during the events leading to the Iraq War has led to a widening rift amongst policy makers and the learning community. It is widely believed that the war think-tank defied the pointers presented by the official intelligence. Instead, the intelligence available in a raw form was misused to existencely excuse the war on Iraq and build a positive public perception that would endorse the war. As the Washington Post reports the discussion on the war The case was thin, su mmarized the notes taken by a British national security aide at the meeting. Saddam was not threatening his neighbours and his WMD capability was less than that of Libya, northwards Korea or Iran.However, the think-tank was convinced about going for a war with Iraq and it used the available intelligence to confirm its beliefs. Cognitive diversity was missing in the think-tank that move up the plan for the Iraq War. All members involved in the decision process had same political leanings, were to a large extent a culturally homogenized group and formed a small team that worked closely with each other on various policy making issues.The team did not comprise of various political voices even though the decision to go to war impacted the entire country. It did also not take advice and heed to objections of World bodies alike the United Nations when some of the member countries objected to the unilateral action of the United grounds and its ally Britain to go to war. The team did no t invite any new members to its coterie of decision makers to infuse fresh or alternative thinking in its decision making process.As Senator Barbara Boxer said, Iraq was a war of choice, not necessity. The intelligence community was roped in only to substantiate claims made by the think-tank on the reason to go to war. The group behaved with a preset agenda ignoring the alternatives at fleet and made biased decisions. The Iraq War is also an example of group comparison where the decisions of the individual members could have been different from the decisions of the group that they were part of.The study of group polarization began with an unpublished 1961 Masters thesis by MIT student James Stoner, who observed the so-called risky shift, meaning that a groups decisions are riskier than the average of the individual decisions of members before the group met. After the wide public criticism of the U. S. handling of the war, two prominent members of the Iraq think-tank put in their papers. Secretary of State Colin L. Powell resigned after almost 4 years of at the helm of affairs.He was seen as less supportive of the war even though he was the public face on international forums to drum up support amongst its traditional allies. Whereas Defense Secretary Donald H. Rumsfeld who took over the course of foreign policy after Powells exit was seen as a hardliner. It seems that the hardliners would have grown even more resolute in their decision to go to war after several rounds of deliberations that the think-tank big businessman have had. They would have presented intelligence information and other reasons to hard sell their belief thereby subduing the reluctant supporters of the war.

Sainsburys Supermarket Consumer Analysis

Sainsburys Supermart Consumer AnalysisA super trade is the One-Stop-provider of almost all the daylight to day basic necessities of any regular consumer in the given market industry. These necessities include the fodder items, drinks, toiletries, household stuff etc. Hence all you need to tie your houses daily. These supermarkets pee now further developed themselves by providing clothings, shoes etc.One of the leading surnames in the UK supermarket industry is Sainsburys. J. Sainsbury plc is the p bent alliance of Sainsburys Supermarkets Ltd, normally known as Sainsburys (also Sainsbury and JS) this is the third largest chain of super stores in the United Kingdom with a market share of 16.3%. The groups Head Office is located at Holborn in Central London.1.2. OperationsFounded in 1869 by John James Sainsbury a large with his wife Mary Ann in London and then gradually grew to go the largest grocery retailer by 1922.The caller-up has a chain of stores with 537 supermarkets and 335 convenience stores, so a total of 872 stores in England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland, including Hypermarkets (super large stores- Sainsburys stores- main plus), Sainsburys Central and Sainsburys local anesthetic (supermarket and local convenient stores format main mission). The company has been eyeing the opportunity of expanding its business enterprise outside the UK. Especially the hyper potential in Asia (especially South East Asia and China). By analyzing Tescos immense success in the market outside UK, Sainsburys venture might not be far away.The Sainsburys family has 15% shares of J Sainsbury plc (as of May 2008) The major family shareholder is sea captain Sainsbury of Turville holding 5.83% and Lord Sainsbury of Preston Candover who holds almost 3% of the companys shares.It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index(July 12, 2010http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainsburys)In this base we engender analyzed Sainsburys on the nucleo tide of its financial action throughStudying its last 2 years financials qualification necessary observationsComparing its financial performance with the market leader TescoCommenting on the strengths and weaknesses as interpreted through their figures / ratios etc.Calculating the WACC for Sainsburys belongings in view the over saturated industry of supermarkets, it was required that Sainsburys should venture into something new to augment its profit margins and gives the companys portfolio some diversity.A new project suggesting that Sainsburys should open its Sainsburys Travels and Tours has been discussed and a formal report which analyzes the idea and calculates the projects NPV has been approved by the board and given a go ahead.A format for quarterly report has been suggested for business updates of the new project every quarter.Market Position.The Sainsburys is the UKs oldest major food retailer with their first store opened in 1869. It strives to keep up with its trusted heritage of quality with best services. The management has a continuous get down towards work with responsibility. They attempt to provide fresh food and innovate with respect to customers needs. It serves over 18.5 million customers every week. The large stores offer over 30000 products along with complementary Non-Food products e.g. the TU clothing range which has over 1 million transactions every week. Along with other services, an Internet based shopping service has also been make available, keeping in cut off with the changing requirements o the customers, to almost 90% of UK households.In 1995, Tesco overtook Sainsburys to become the market leader, and Asda became the second largest in 2003, demoting Sainsburys into third place.(July 12, 2010http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainsburys)(http//www.j-sainsbury.co.uk/index.asp?pageid=12)2. Sainsbury pecuniary grammatical construction and PerformanceSainsburys is the 3rd largest UK super market with Tesco and Asda as its closest co mpetitors holding positions as No. 1 and No. 2 respectively. Presently Sainsburys is operating in 872 stores across UK with 150,000 employeesSainsburys closes its financial year in the third week of March every year. The tools used are the Income Statement, Balance Sheet, change flow statement with the Notes to the Financial Statements.The financial analysis of any company divine services determine the financial standing(a) of the company and helps in making decisions and plan future strategy and projects on its basisThe financial figures show a reasonable increase in sales. The gross profit showed a decline from 2007 to 2008 nevertheless is again on increase trend in 2009.Balance sheet shows growth in good pass on and shares and decrease in the dramatiseings. This might give birth been due to increase in the interest rates.Cash flows show a significant increase in cash in hand which shows the company is stably liquid to handle its operations smoothly. Also the increase is due to sale of its stores.2.1. Comparison with Market Leader Tesco2.1.1. Ratio AnalysisRatio analysis of any company provides very important information regarding the companys financial standing, financial strengths /weaknesses. They are calculated to compare a companys progress against other rivals of the industry as well as its previous performance. The ratios measureThe profitability of the businessThe PerformanceThe quality of companys performanceA companys ability to wager the short term obligationsA companys debt burdenValue of business / Investment2.1.2. ManagementTesco is the market leader in UK supermarket industry holding almost 31% of the market. The 1st Tesco store was opened in 1929, in Edgware, Middlesex, UK. Since then it has gradually grown in to being the largest supermarket chain in the UK with almost 2200 stores in UK with over 285,000 employees. Since the mid 90s S, Tesco has been investing in new markets overseas, finding new opportunities for growth and means of generating long term returns for shareholders. The group operates in 13 markets outside the UK, in Europe, Asia and North America, and also announced their entry into the Indian market last year, where they are mean to establish cash carry business.2.1.3. Financial strengthBoth Sainsbury and Tesco ware strong ease sheets, equipped with tangible real estate assets. This collateral allows them to borrow at lower rates and generate cash through sale-and-leaseback schemes if required.Both the companys are operating in a saturated market.Sainsburys almost 90% of gross is consumed in COGS leaving from 5% to 6.5% in lieu of gross profit margin and even the other expenses are insignificant comparatively still the company is left with 1.5% to 1.9% of net profit.For Tesco, the situation is not very different from Sainsburys. Here the gross profit margin is 7% which is a little better from Sainsburys.The current ratios and Quick ratios of both the companys are below 1 which is not a heal thy trend. In order to obtain any finance the company should have a stable solvency indicator.The debt ratio indicates that how much of the firms assets are being financed by the debt. Both the companys show a stable debt ratio of 20% to 30%.The debt to truth ratio measures the peril involved in investing in the particular company. Sainsburys shows an acceptable debt to equity ratio of almost 50% tho Tesco comparably has a Brobdingnagian debt to equity ratio of 91 which might be because of its full throttle expansion in international markets.Most financiers analyze the company balance sheet before making an investment decision. The prime motive to check if the companys Capital Gearing is right. Capital Gearing is the relationship between Equity and Debt. It is continuously considered good for a company to have a reasonable Equity base to a business, as insurance against un abideed losses. This is to minimize the risk as much as possible. If a company has a Gearing of no more t han 50% 67% of their Gross Assets from Debt, depending on the risk associated with the business, it is considered acceptable. The higher the gearing, the more vulnerable the company is to the impact of increased interest rates.Tesco and Sainsbury both show a sound gearing and though Sainsbury is more healthier to be invested upon, Tesco as well is well within the Good Gearing GroundsThe interest coverage of both companys show a very healthy standing to meet their interest payments deadlines.http//www.financesoutheast.com/From above comparison it is clear that retail industry is highly saturated and it is nearly impossible for the companies to earn super profits. Effective cost require techniques need to be applied and monitored on regular basis to improve profitability. Sainsburys have alter turnover at a rate of 5.5% a year. remuneration have grown even faster increasing by 6.7%. Tesco has a little edge based on earning slightly higher profits and show rapid growth. Both the c ompanies need to improve upon their debt structuring, especially Tesco and hence gradually improve their liquidity ratios.2.1.4. Growth potentialSo far, Sainsburys has only concentrated on its business in the UK while Tesco has increased its operations in 14 countries. But we should not conclude that Sainsbury is lacking in growth opportunities. Sainsburys has two procurance offices in China solely again no matchless is sure as to when Sainsburys go out be able to achieve increased growth and improved profit margin without international expansion.Sainsbury has performed well by adding innovative non-food products and banking services, but competition is tough and increasing in these areas, tooTesco, on the other hand, whitethorn have more growth opportunities in progressing Asian market and elsewhere, but its also a much bigger entity than Sainsbury. For example, during last wizard year Tesco had 56.9 billion in turnover as compared to 19.9 billion for Sainsbury.Sainsburys has been concentrating on UK store expansion rather than overseas growth. It has increased the total twist of stores from 583 in 2004 to 872 today. Today, Sainsburys need to accentuate on its domestic growth and increase its store efficiencies, which is not an easy task, but it is more achievable than managing and controlling a group of international locations with several(a) tastes and demands.http//www.tescoplc.com/plc/about_us/strategy/international/http//www.fool.co.uk/news/investing/company-comment/2010/07/16/a-foolish-fracas-sainsbury-vs-tesco.aspx3. Weighted Average Cost of CapitalDebtEquity2,357 (Long term debt)18.64m (shares) * 345 (share price) = 6,4313.1. EquityNo. of shares outstanding 1,864 (m) menstruation market price per share 345Market Value of equity 1,864 * 345 = 6431http//www.google.com/finance?q=LONSBRYhttp//www.digitallook.com/companyresearch/10079/Sainsbury_(J)/share_prices.htmlhttp//www.bloomberg.com/markets/rates-bonds/government-bonds/uk/http//www.j-sainsbur y.co.uk/index.asp?pageid=23We calculate the cost of equity through Dividend Growth ModelWhich is Ke = Do (1 + g) / (MV-Ex Div) gWhereKe = cost of equityDo = Dividend given = 14.20 (pence)MV = Market cheer = 345 (pence)Ex. Div = Ex Dividend = 10.20 (pence)g = growth rate = 7.6%Cost of equity 14.20(1+0.076) / (345 10.2) 0.076Ke = 12.11%3.2. DebtBook value of Debt 2,1351,074 4.98%861 2.36%171 4.25%251 4.3%Kd = 3.90%http//www.j-sainsbury.co.uk/ar10/downloads/pdf/Sainsburys_AR10_note_20_borrowings.pdf3.3. WACCVKV * KDebt23573.90%9192Equity643112.11%77879Total878887071Sum VK / Sum V = 87071 / 8788 = 9.91%4. Project4.1. Opening up of Sainsburys Travel and ToursSainsbury has always aimed to be the consumers first choice for food, delivering quality products with great service at a competitive cost. The company is striving to achieve the objective of leading margins with diverse market and delivering strong profits every year.The values of Sainsburys are defined in their website asThe values of the Sainsburys brand passion for healthy, safe, fresh and tasty food, our focus on delivering great products at fair prices, a history of innovation and leadership and a strong regard for the social, ethical and environmental effects of our operation have continued to stand the test of time.Five principles are at the core of Sainsburys businessThe best for food and healthSourcing with integrityRespect for our environmentMaking a positive difference to our communityA great place to work.These principles provide differentiation from our major competitors and define and direct all our activities.http//www.j-sainsbury.co.uk/index.asp?pageid=14Keeping the tradition of the best services, the management has decided to venture into the ever growing market of Travel and Tourism industry with first step up of Sainsburys Travels and Tours.The idea of opening up a Travel Services business branch of Sainsburys is based on the news of Sainsburys opening up its Travel Clinics in mid 2 008. The clinics were open in outlets initially offering free consultation with nurses offering different injections and health products with advise for people travelling to countries requiring vaccinations and immunization from infections like flu, malaria etc. These products were offered at significantly cheaper prices than in any specialist clinics.http//www.holidaylettings.co.uk/resources/industry-news/general-travel/sainsbury-s-launches-travel-clinics-in-21-of-its-supermarkets/a-3-143-1264/The Sainsburys Travels and Tours pass on provide the company to excel and achieve its strategic goals on the basisThe supermarket industry has become pretty saturated in the UK and at present Sainsburys is eyeing to expand itself in the International market but it will be a while before it in truth does.The Travel industry is a growing market and has a capacious potential of growth.The new product will benefit the company earn huge profitability margins which are becoming hard to achieve I the supermarket industry.The Sainsburys has a huge loyal customer base which will be utilized for promotions and trade purpose.The project has a high probability of success given a chance of a fresh new product offered by a supermarket chain.The company will use its live huge customer base for the travel services marketing and promotion.The existing nectar loyalty card database will help the management to design the product, offerings, travel and tour packages as per the p filename extensions.4.1.1. Project Description and Key ElementsThe project will have a Head Office (With the existing HQ of Sainsburys at Holborn Circus, London) have initially total 3-4 rooms allocated.The HQ office will have 7 employees.initially only limited stores and selected cities will be setup with the Sainsburys Travels and Tour Desk with one person behind the counter.The Six major cities (with respect to area / population) i.e. London, Birmingham, Manchester, Glasgow, Belfast and Cardiff screen the whole of UK will be set up initially for kick off of the Travel and Tour Services.10 stores in London and 5 stores in the remaining cities will be setup for providing the services.Each of these cities will have a team of 2 people, 1 within the store premises (as mentioned above) and the other for monitoring and reporting purpose.The number of employees will gradually be increased as per requirements with the project evolvement.http//www.ukcities.co.uk/populations/4.1.2. Initial Investment CostInitial InvestmentCostCost of IATA Membership (http//www.iata.org/ social status/Pages/fees.aspx)33,500 GPBTotal Staff 27 Computershttp//www1.euro.dell.com/content/products/features.aspx/iip_notebooks?c=ukcs=ukbsdt1l=ens=bsdCID=41142LID=1069631DGC=ST650 * 27 = 17,550 GBP(including VAT and Delivery)Serverhttp//configure.euro.dell.com/dellstore/config.aspx?b=c=ukcs=ukbsdt1l=enoc=PE2T610Rs=bsd2,800 GBP(including VAT and Delivery)Softwarehttp//www.britishsoft.co.uk/?gclid=CMmGudvPgaMCFSU_lAodWH6Zd g940 GBP(including VAT and Delivery)Total Initial Cost54,790 GBP4.1.3. Other CostsType of costCost AmountRemarksSalary for 1st year450,000Inc. of 7.5% for each one yearBrochures / Stationary / Equipment20,000Inc. of 10% each yearMarketing Budget250,000Inc. of 15% every year4.1.4. AssumptionsWe assume that Sainsbury will initially target the high spenders from its customer database and target them for the promotions and marketing materials (leaflets etc.)initially the holiday packages and tours will be offered for 5 big holiday destinations including Egypt, Turkey, Tunisia, Barbados and Spain.The packages the calculations are based include a general deal for 4 people for 7 days.The holiday packages for these destinations cost as follows (based on holiday packages offered by Expedia.Destination toll for Customer (average) http//packageholidays.expedia.co.uk//tt.aspx real Cost (with Sainsburys profit margin 24 (Price 24%) http//www.thomascookgroup.com/annual-reportsEgypt1150 (GBP) 286.5 GBP per person874 GBPTurkey728 (GBP) 182 GBP Per Person553 GBPTunisia1200 GBP 300 GBP per person912 GBPBarbados3120 GBP 780 GBP per person2371 GBPSpain1000 GBP 250 GBP per person760 GBPWe assume that Sainsbury will succeed on selling on 110 of these above mention packages for each country. Annual Revenues will be 718900 GBPWe assume that annual revenues will increase by 12% (2% more than the average growth in Sainsburys revenues which is 9.4% given the growth potential in the industry)Operating cost will include the salaries of the employees, day to day business running expenses etc. since we are sharing the premises of existing Sainsburys stores and HQ so there will be no extra operating cost except the salaries.As per the National Statistics Online, the Consumer Price Index (CPI) is at 3.2% and the Retail Price Index (RPI) is at 5.0%. http//www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=19. The growing inflation rates have a direct negative effect on the customers ability to spe nd on unfilled and holidays. Although consumers have gradually developed this sense of planning ahead and saving for their Holidays.Effective Tax rate of 28% is applied. http//www.hmrc.gov.uk/rates/corp.htm4.2. Identification of Risk and scrupleIn any new project, one is never sure about 100% results. If the project is based on Risk then we might expect somewhat certain results based on previous data. The cash flows based on Risk might be forecasted and the associated possibilities are also known but in aspect of uncertainty the outcome is unknown and hence the related probabilities are also unknown. A study conducted with a few managers showed that they think risk is manageable if you have right information, sufficient knowledge about the project, and if the person is experienced in the particular field. Most of them stressed on the importance of alternatives, ingathering more information and checking different aspects of the problem, along with being actively involved to reduc e the risk.. (IAENG International Journal of Computer Science, 324, IJCS_32_4_12)It is the attempt to manage both the known-unknowns and unknown-unknowns. Preparation for and managing the risk is the result of what is unsure and unknown-decision risk. 4.2.1. Affects of Risk and Uncertainty on proposed projectLets consider the following aspects while making decision based on risk for the Sainsburys Travels and ToursWhat can go Wrong?The Sainsburys already has an established huge no. of loyal customers who would be happy to have an option o a different kind of service offered from their trust worthy service provider. The expectation for a stable turnover is based on the fact that it is an established name offering a new product on the basis of its goodwill.How likely it is to happen?The expected growth can be effected by increasing inflation rates.The Travel Industry faced a huge blow after 9-11 incident.What are the consequences?Any unforeseen incident like this (God forbid) will hav e long lasting effects on the companys growth, profitability and future expansions and plans.http//www.robustdecisions.com/decision-making-tools/risk-vs-uncertainty.php5. Calculation of NPVNPV is a technique where cash inflows which are expected in comming years are discounted back to their present value. This is calculated by through a discount rate equal to the interest that was to be received on the sums, in case the inflows had been saved, or the interest that has to be borne by the firm on the borrowings. In case of more then one project appraisal, the firm should choose the one that produces the highest NPV.5.1. Sainsburys Travels and Tours Expected Cash Flows (for 3 years)The project has a positive NPV which is a healthy sign for the project. It can be proceeded with. The project is going to be dear for the company and add to the shareholders value. A positive NPV means that the project is worthwhile because the cost of tying up the firms capital is compensated for by the ca sh inflows that result.http//www.bized.co.uk/timeweb/reference/using_experiments.htm6. Quarterly Report FormatAs per the requirement of the board every quarter a report has to be sent for updated performance and progress information. The report has to serve the purpose of giving a complete up to date data to be analyzed by the board. A company analysis gives a complete performance and financial picture of the company. The report should include all the data necessary to quickly compare it with the major competitors.6.1. Reporting LayoutsThe report will be in Excel sheet format.The Information provided will be in different excel sheets in the same document each covering a preceding quarter to give convenient comparisonsTitle of the report Sainsburys Travels and ToursAddressed toDate from -/-/- to -/-/-Date of submissionSubmitted by6.1.1. Holiday Packages Bookings6.1.4. Comparison of Actual and Forecasted performanceThe calculation of the Sainsburys Travels and Tours project NPV has be en made by going through the three years forecasted figures of the company which show that it is progressing towards a high performing entity with reasonable growth in profit. Although with the growth of the company eventually it will require to use more resources in term of offices, employees, equipment, marketing budget etc. but the current performance clearly suggests that it will very strongly bear all the changes and keep on showing a steady growth.7. ConclusionSainsburys is one of the key players of the existing supermarket industry in UK. This report gives an overview of its performance during the last couple of years, dealing with the financial figures we have tried to analyze the financial standing and strength and the comparison with the main market leader Tesco gives a fair idea of both the companys approach towards business.Although Sainsburys has not yet ventured into the International market but the step might not b that far away keeping in mind the huge success TESCO has had in the international market.Sainsburys has a huge loyal customer base. The suggested new service product throughSainsburys Travel and Tours will provide these customers to utilize yet another trustworthy service by their trusted name.The growing Travel and Tours market will definitely have a positive effect on the Sainsburys portfolio by increasing its profits and hence strengthening its business.

The role of the family in mental health recovery

The role of the family in mental health reco very(prenominal)CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONFamily is a small companionable system made up of individuals related to each new(prenominal) by reason of strong reciprocal affections and loyalties, and compromising a permanent ho utilisation think about that persists over years and decades.It is the most square primary unit of human union. It is the earliest psychiatric hospital of humankind that is in the main depends upon mans biological and psychological impoverishments. Without family, no other social institution like religion or government can exist. The sustainability of family is vital to the development and progress of the society. The term family has been derived from the Latin word familia which means a house hold establishment.It indicates to a number of individuals staying and living together during important phase of their life time and they are bound to each other by biological, social and psychological relationship. It may be t he joint family or an individual family in the modern society.Famous sociologist M.F Nimkoff defines family as a joint effort of husband and wife either with child or without child. The existence of family is very significant. Family plays a major role in the society. Family generates human capital resources and also it has the power to influence hit individual, each household and the behaviour of the community (Sriram, 1993).Hence family is being studied as the most prefatorial unit in the different branches of social science. Human developments, Psychology, anthropology, economics, social psychiatry, social workplace are examples. Family is a major resource for the various needs of human beings. It is the family plays a major role in the nourishment of children and contact their most basic needs such as emotional bonding, health, development and protection.There is enormous potential lies within the family and it proves it during the trouble times by providing stability and certification.The process of an individual and the society mostly depends upon this basic unit of the society. (Desai, 1995a). Culture to culture and society to society, families and family dynamics varies and they cannot be interpreted without the context of cultural factors. Culture determines the roles of family members and it explains families ways of defining problem and solving them.The family in India is known as an ideal homogenous unit with strong coping mechanisms. In a large culturally diverse country like India have plurality of forms in the families that varies with class, ethnicity and individual choices. Collectivism is an important dimension of Indian culture that affects the family functioning. In other words, the basic aspects of human life such as economic, philosophic are given the outlook of interdependence amongst persons. Family cohesion, cooperation, solidarity, and conformity are the major values of collectivistic society like India. Indian joint families are considered Strength, stability, closeness, resilience, and endurance are encouraged in the Indian joint families where family loyalty, family integrity is given priority than individual choices. These queer dimensions of Indian families help the families to overcome difficult situations that they face over the course of time. When an individual in the family is struck with a disease or any other troubles, the entire community helps that individual to face that situation.What is Family support?Family support can be defined as the benefits a person receives from the family and friends such as carnal emotional and material benefits. Positive social support helps one to improve in the ability to make healthier choices in life. Family or social support would also means being able to access people that a person can rely upon if needed. In an individuals life, family support is all important(p) at all times. Good support from the family enhances the individual to excel in his or her field of interest. On the contrary, poor support results in poor performance. A person hailing from a lower socio economic strata s considered to be affable Health and family supportHealth is the most important aspect of human life. tally to WHO Health is a state of absolute physical, mental and social well-being and not only the absence of disease(World health Organisation,2001) Mental health is another knowledge base where family support is an inevitable factor. In a situation where resources for mental health are scarcely available families form a valuable support system. Mental health is defined as state of well-being in which every individual realizes his or her own potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to contribute to her or his community ( World Health Organisation, WHO includes social support as one of the key determinants of health. Mental fed up(p)ness is medical examination examination condition that affects an individuals thinking, emotions, ability to relate with others and daily functioning. Just as any other physical conditions, mental infirmity are medical conditions which results in poor capacity for coping with the demands of life.Mental illness is considered the most pathetic condition of a human life. Indian traditions considered a mentally ill person as an outcast since he or she was labelled as cursed by gods. The presence of mentally ill in a family brings enormous implications. There will be only a handful in the family who will be willing to take care of the patient namely the fuck off or wife. When one person is ill in the family, the entire course of the family gets diversityd. Because society would label the family as cursed and this would bring a capacious spue of problems especially if the family hails from a lower social and economic strata.On the contrary, Indian families are the key resources for the mentally ill. There are mainly two reasons for thi s position. First, it is mainly because of the traditional practice of collectivism and concern for the relatives in adversities. As a result, most Indian families do not hesitate to be significantly winding in all aspects of care for their relatives. The tradition of involvement of family in the care of mentally ill has always existed. Secondly, since there is a long gap amid the need and thus the clinicians mostly depend on the family. Thus having adequate family support becomes the need of the patient, clinician and health administrators.INVOLVEMENT OF FAMILY IN THE MENTAL HEALTH go IN INDIAIn the pre independence era, mental health care services in India were not organised. Usually persons with mental illness were taken care by family members or religious institutions. In other cases they roamed free. Mental asylums were introduced by Britishers where unwanted dangerous mentally ill were kept behind shut doors. Though it was ab initio for their soldiers, later Indian populat ion also received the services. T was in Bombay in 1745 the first mental asylum was established. The second in Calcutta in 1781, the triad in Madras in 1794 and the fourth in Monghyr, Bihar in 1795. Globally there were changes taking place in the mental health scenario, which involved moral interposition and comprehensive community mental health approach. However, not all these changes in Europe and America made any impact on the Indian scene. admittance of the Government until 1946 was to establish custodial and no therapeutic centres.In 1957, there was a shift in the mental health field when Dr.VidyaSagar the then overseer of Amritsar Mental Hospital, took initiative to involve the close relatives of the mentally ill in the treatment. The family stayed in the hospital campus along with the patients in open tents. This in fact aided the speedy recovery of the patients in comparison with those patients who did not stay with the families. Christian Medical College,Vellore establi shed family wards in the psychiatric setting which followed many advantages such as accelerated rate of recovery, low relapse rates.Many family members started helping the community by identifying the psychiatric patients and providing the guidance. The close relatives of the patients were asked to stay with the patients in the open wards .at NIMHANS.Using family as a major resource in the process of recovery of mentally ill has the advantage of relieving the professionals.Community care has been a paradigm shift for psychiatric treatment worldwide.retrieval in mental healthRecovery in mental health cannot be easily defined. This significant aspect depends upon many factors. A process of change through which individuals improve their health and wellness, live a self-directed life, and strive to reach their full potential (Samhsa, August 2011). Recovery from mental illness is a long term process. It involves the experience of healing and transformation and by which the person learns to live a purpose oriented life in the society. He or she would learn to make use of his or her potential in the very journey of healing.Bipolar disorder is a recurrent and long-term mental illness that can seriously affect the lives of patients and their families. Bipolar disorder is a common psychiatric disorder that includes periods of extremely elevated mood and periods of depression and periods of full or partial recovery. The cycles of high and low mood states and well periods may follow an irregular pattern. The treatment of Bipolar disorder cannot be limited to pharmacotherapy alone. Psychotherapy, psycho education, accomplice group support also play major role in the process of recovery.Bipolar affective disorderBipolar disorder is a chronic, relentless illness that can impose significant impairment on multiple aspects of a patients life including interpersonal relationships, occupational functioning and pecuniary stability (APA, 2002). Globally it has been ranked the ni nth highest cause of years of life lost due to death or disability and the 12th most habitual cause of disability among individuals aged between 15 and 44 years (World Health Organization, 2004).The distress and impairment caused by bipolar disorder is a wide spread and important issue. Globally the lifetime prevalence of all forms of the illness, often referred to as bipolar spectrum disorders, has been estimated to be 5% in the general population. Ganguli (2000) reported that the bailiwick rate of affective disorder in India as 34 per 1000 population.This disorder significantly affects the functional capacity of the person. Apart from regular medication, support from the mount and dear makes a large difference in the recovery process. The practice guideline of The American Psychiatric Association (APA) for Bipolar Disorder treatment suggests the use of certain psychotherapies which includes family therapy as well(American Psychiatric Association,2002) So there are high chances that by the sincere involvement in the care of these patients they may improve in their psychosocial functioning and also to cope with their own struggles due to the illness.ConclusionUnlike the institutionalized care, in the community based care for the persons with mental illness, the role of family is very important. The bio medical, socio economic, psycho- spiritual and every integral dimension of the society is necessary in the recovery process. Family being the smallest unit of the society therefore is of much importance in rebuilding the life of the persons with mentally ill. Family is pivotal to catering to the persons with mental illness as they function as the primary care givers. In short, The involvement of family is the need of the hour.

Benefits and problems concerning traditional approach to budgeting

Benefits and jobs concerning traditional approach to cypheringIn order to advise two different craftes al nearly the benefits and problems associated with traditional approach to calculateing and work prohibitedary harbor, i turn in collected and compiled the in traffic patternation regarding budgeting and divided it into different parts so that the reader may easily understand .1.INTRODUCTION A budget is a supply and keepling tool for an oraganisation.This tool tin bath work effectively save when it is employ with due cargon.It is non only the a cost monitoring apparatus unless as well as an integral part of an organisations planning and mesh activities.It aims at achieving organisational objectives and motivating the personnel concerned.For the success of budgetary organisation gathering the essential informationand choosing an sequester budgetary system etc. atomic number 18 necessary.The elevated budegting system is one that progresss goal congruence(i.e. a situation where the personal goals of the employees match the oraganisational goals).Ensuring the greater participation of the supervisory level in the management parade can ensure goal congruence.Budgets may be of different types to suit the different practices followed by different organisations.An organisation using a conventional systemof budgeting may som terms need to switch over to an some other to suit its requirements.Changing a budegtary system is not a simple task.An oraganisation has to face certain difficultiesin the form of resistance to change by the personnel of the organisation,changes required in the existing support systems etc., inorder to change its budgetary system.The Success of a budget is also for the most part dependant on the level of accuracy in estimating the revenues and costs for the budget menstruum.There argon several statistical techniques which may prove useful in prevision the figures to be incorporated in budgets.2. TRADITIONAL BUDGETING2. 1. IntroductionFirst of all in all(a) we begin this topic with the simple definition of budget.In short-change budget can be delimit as Quantitative economic plan made with regard to time. Therefore, for something to be characterised as a budget it must comprise the quantities of economic resources to be allocated and apply, it has to be expressed in economic i.e. monetary terms, it has to be a plan not a hope or a forecast but an authoritative intention, and it must be made within a certain period of time (Harper, 1995, p. 318). Only a plan that has such characteristics can be called a budget.However, if a budget is considered upon in its wider context, it can be defined as a management tool that puts executives in adjudge of the pecuniary health of their comp all. It is an objective measure of the pecuniary structure of companys operation and a tool that forces management to be accountable in a structured and objective way. Budgets as management tools by themselves are n either good nor bad. How managers administer budgets is the key to their value. When administered wisely, budgets facilitate planning and resource allocation and second to enumerate, itemize, dissect and examine all of the products and services that a company offers to customers (Seer, 2000, p. 187). In short and taken at its simplest level, a budget is a mathematical exercise, but in reality it is much(prenominal), much much than numbers on spreadsheets, which is what following text lead definitely show.The purpose of budgeting is that it gives management an idea of how well a company is meeting their income goals, whether or not expenses are in bankers bill with predicted levels, and how well controls are working. Properly used, budgeting can and should increase profits, reduce unnecessary spending, and intelligibly define how immediate step can be taken to expand markets (Thomsett, 1988, p. 5). In order to achieve this, management needs to build a budgeting system, the maj or objectives of which are to (Viscione, 1984, p. 42)Set unimpeachable targets for revenues and expenses.Increase the likelihood that targets will be reached.Provide time and opportunity to formulate and evaluate options should obstacles arise.Since budgeting as a offset is very complex, it comes as no surprise that budgets are trying to fulfil numerous functions such as (Harper, 1995, p. 321, and Churchill, 1984, p. 162)Planning a budget establishes a plan of action that enables management to retire in advance the bars and timing of the production factors required to meet desired level of sales.Controlling a budget can be used to help an plaque reach its objectives by ensuring that each of the individual steps are taken as planned.Coordinating a budget is where all the financial components of an organization Individual units, divisions, and departments are assembled into a coherent master picture that expresses the organizations overall operational objectives and strategic goals.Communicating by publishing the budget, management explicitly informs its subordinates as to what exactly they must be doing and what other parts of the organization will be doing. A budget is designed to give managers a clear mind of the companys financial goals, from expected cost savings to targeted revenues.Instructing a budget is often as much an executive order as an organisational plan since it lays bundle what must be done. It may, therefore, be regarded by subordinates as a management instruction.Authorising if a budget is a management instruction then conversely it is an mandate to take budgeted action.Motivating in that a budget sets a target for the different members of the organization so that it can act to motivate them to try and extend to their budgeted targets.Performance measuring by providing a benchmark against which actual execution of instrument can be measured, a budget clearly plays a crucial government agency in the important task of carry ing into action measurement.Decision-making it should never be assumed that a budget is set in concrete and when changing build a well-designed budget is a very useful tool in evaluating the consequences of a proposed alternative since the effect of any change can be traced throughout the total organization.Delegating budgets delegate responsibility to the managers who assume authority for a specified set of resources and activities. In this way budgets emphasise even more the existing organizational structure within the company.Educating the educating effect of a budget is perhaps most evident when the operate is introduced in a company. Operating managers learn not only the technical aspects of budgeting but also how the company functions and how their business units interact with others.Better management of subordinates a budget enhances the skills of operating managers not only by educating them about how the company functions, but also by giving them the opportunity to m anage their subordinates in a more professional manner.The requirements that all these functions impose upon a budget make it difficult for one system to meet them all. It is precisely because these requirements differ, that role meshs in budgeting system arise. These need to be subduely dealt with so that dysfunctional behaviour like budget padding or other damaging budget games for the company do not appear. Since there are three major roles for any budgeting system, at least three conflicts may arise (Barrett, Fraser, 1977, p. 141)Planning versus motivationFor a budget to be most effective in the planning role, it should be based on a realistic assessment of the companys operating capabilities and on managements judgment about what is most likely to happen in the future. Yet this physique of budget runs the risk of pose targets so low that motivation is adversely affected since to motivate flop, budget objectives should be set higher than those for planning and be difficul t yet attainable. On the other hand, these difficult yet attainable objectives lead to an overly optimistic budget and run the risk of falling short and under using company resources.Motivation versus evaluationThere is a widely held belief that budget objectives should be set as fixed standards against which achievement can be judged. Managers are also likely to be more committed to achieving this kind of objective since they know that the doing standards by which they are evaluated are not constantly changing. On the other hand, managers motivation can be impaired by rigid application of a fixed standard school of thought which doesnt consider the impacts of uncontrollable or unforeseeable events and doesnt allow for their removal from budget standards.Planning versus evaluationThe planning roles requirement of providing realistic assessment of future prospects can conflict with the need to eliminate the effects of uncontrollable or unforeseeable environmental variables from th e budget used for evaluation purposes. Yet, because they are separated in time, the conflict mingled with these requirements is considered a minor one since it can be considerably reduced if appropriate adjustments are done at the end of the budget period.As can be seen in the previous paragraph, functions that typical budgets want to cover are very wide. It comes then as no surprise that those budgets are existence used today in practice for more purposes. Bunce, Fraser and Woodcocks (1995) survey showed that general uses of budgets can be divided into financial and operational type of uses. Figure 2 clearly indicates that, of the various uses of budgeting for management, the most important are those financially oriented like the use of budgets for financial forecast, cost control, cash flow management, and capital economic consumption supervision. The operational management uses of budgeting have been less common but the interviewed companies have concluded that, in todays bus iness environment, they are of growing importance. The need to improve cognitive process is intensifying to the point that it is no longer enough just to control costs, butThat company must also pay attention to things like scheme, communication, and employee evaluation. These are purposes for which budgets have not been used so much in the previous(prenominal).As stated in the opening definition, budgets are plans set for a certain period of time, such as a month, quarter, and yr and so on. This time period is then usually broken into smaller sub periods. The most frequently used budgets are annual budgets that are subdivided by months for the first quarter and by quarters for the remainder of the year. Of course, actual time periods for which budgets are made depend by and large on their purpose and use, and it is solely the decision of individual companies as to what time periods will be utilized for their budgeting process.2.2. History of budgetsThe English word budget stems from the French word bougette and the Latin word bulga which was a leather bag or a large-sized purse which travellers in medieval times hung on the saddle of their horse. The treasurers bougette was the harbinger to the small leather case from which finance ministries even today in countries like Great Britain and Holland present their yearly financial plan for the state. So afterwards being used to describe the word wallet and then state finances, the meaning of the word budget in 19th century slowly shifted to the financial plan itself, initially only for governments and then later for private and legal entities (Hofstede, 1968, p. 19). It was only then that budgets started to be considered as financial plans and not just as money bags.The use of budgets as financial planning and control tools for business enterprises is historically a rather young phenomenon. In the US, early budgetary principles in companies were mostly derived from the budget techniques in government. The ot her source of budgetary principles for business in the US was the Scientific Management Movement, which in the years betwixt 1911 and 1935 conquered the US industry. Many historians agree that early budgeting systems can be seen as a logical extension of Taylors Scientific Management from the shop floor to the total enterprise. However, it was not until the depression years after 1930 that budget control in US companies started to be implemented on a large-scale.Budgets with their focus on cost control simply became a perfect management tool for that period of time (ibid., p. 20). In Europe the idea of using budgets for business was firstly formulated by the French organization pioneer Henri Fayol (1841-1925). There was, however, little application in practice. Another practical stimulus came from the ideas of the Czechentrepreneur Thomas Bata (1876-1925) who introduced the so-called departmental profit-and-loss-control as a tool for decentralizing his international shoe company in to a federation of independently run small businesses. Nevertheless, the main inducement for the discipline of budgets and their implementation in European companies came from across the Atlantic in the years following the Second World War (ibid., p. 21).Companies like Du Pont and General Motors in the U.S., south in Germany, and Saint Gobain and Elctricit de France in France, which pioneered the M-form (multidivisional) organizational structure in the 1920s, first started to use budgets to support their rapid growth as they expanded into current products and markets. This was to help them to reduce the complexity of managing multiple strategies (Hope, Fraser, 1997, p. 20). The enormous diversity in the product markets served by these vertically integrated corporations required new systems and measures to coordinate scatter and decentralized activities. In this kind of environment, budgets and ROI measure rightly played a key role in permitting central management to coordinate, motivate and evaluate the performance of their divisional managers, and perform a proper allocation of internal capital and resources (Johnson, Kaplan,1991, p. 11). However, it is was only in the 1960s that accountants started adding to budgetsother functions (like management performance evaluation and motivation) in addition to those functions for which they had originally been devised planning and control (Hope, Fraser,1999b, p. 50). In that period, budgets became the central and most important activity within management accounting or in the lyric of Horngren, Foster and Datar the most widely used accounting tool for planning and controlling organizations (2000, p. 178). This is exactly how budgets have remained to this day. The only thing that has changed in the meantime is the agonistical environment in which todays companies operate and which has provoked many discussions about budgets disadvantages and their alternatives, some of which will be presented in later parts of th is assessment.2.3. Budgeting ProcessThe process of budgeting chiefly involves an iterative cycle which moves between targets of desirable performance and estimates of feasible performance until there is, hopefully, convergence to a plan which is both feasible and acceptable (Emmanuel, Otley, Merchant,1990, p. 31). Alternatively, if we look beyond many details and iterations of the usual budgeting process we can see that there is a simple universally applicable budgeting process, the phases of which can be depict in the following manner (Finney, 1994, p. 16)Budget forms and instructions are distributed to all managers.The budget forms are filled out and submitted.The individual budgets are transformed into appropriate budgeting/accounting terms and consolidated into one overall company budget.The budget is go offed, modified as necessary, and approved.The final budget is then used throughout the year to control and measure the organization.The inevitable dependence of individual budgets on one another requires that budgets be prepared in a hierarchical manner. Figure 3 indicates a common hierarchical form of the budgeting process together with the necessary data flow between particular budgets and phases of their making. This picture shows that despite having only a few general phases, the budgeting process, due to its linearity and iteration loop, is in fact a very complex and time consuming process.Since it is so complex and important, the budgeting process requires lots of decision making on the particular choices that developers of budgets have at their disposal. Churchill (1984, p.151) has provided a list of eight budget choices that managers have to be concerned with when setting up the budgeting system. Thereby, these concerns vary according to whether the company intends to use its budgets primarily for planning or for control. These budget choices areWhether it is to be prepared from the bottom-up or top-down,How it is to be implemented,How the bud get process is linked to the strategic planning process,Whether it should be a rolling budget and how often it should be revised,Whether performance should be evaluated against the original budget or the one relating to the actual activity level of the organization,Whether compensation/bonuses should be based on budgeted performance,What budget evaluation criteria should be used, andWhat degree of stretch should be incorporated into the budget.In general, accounting theory suggests that large companies should be concerned more with operational efficiency and emphasize coordination and control aspects of budgets, while smaller in advance(p) firms should concentrate more on the planning aspects of their budgets.2.4. Types Of BudgetsA budget is not a unitary concept but varies from organization to organization. The basic concept of budgeting involves estimating future performance, comparing actual results with the estimate, and analyzing the differences between them. Factors that are relevant in determining the type or style of an organizations budget and its effects include the type of organization, the leaders style, personalities of people affected by the budget, the method of preparation, and the desired results of the budgeting process (Cherrington, Cherrington, 1973, p. 226).In general, budgets can be classified into two primary categories (Cohen, Robbins, Young,1994, p. 171)Operating budgetsOperating budgets lie down of plans for all those activities that make up the normal operations of the firm. The main components of the firms operating budget include sales, production, inventory, materials, labour, overheads and RD budgets.Financial budgetsFinancial budgets are used to control the financial aspects of the business. In effect, these budgets reveal the influence of the operating budgets on the firms financial position and earnings potential. They include a cash budget, capital expenditures budget and pro forma respite sheet and income statement.In fig ure 4, all major budgets that can be used in a typical company and how they are linked and unite within the larger system of the master budget can be seen. This confirms what has already been said about the budgeting process that individual budgets are dependent on one another which requires that they be prepared in a hierarchical manner.Except for the usual division of companies budgets into operational and financial, budgets can also be severalise based on expenditure authority. Using this approach, two major groups of budgets can be defined (Kemp, Dunbar, 2003, p. 3)Line-item budgetsThese are budgets where the name of each line is set, as is the amount of money that can be spent on each item. If one works within a line-item budget, one can not overspend a specific line item and then compensate this with savings on other line (or vice versa). The authority to move money from one line item to another must be granted at a higher level.Block budgetsThese are the opposites of line- item budgets. Here a block of money is given. The details of the budget are presented but, later on, if one wants to spend more money on one item and less on another, one is free to do so. As long as the block of money is not overspent before the end of the year, the budget remains under control.2.5. Budgets as planning toolsWelsch, Hilton, Gordon (1988, p. 73) have defined the budgeting process as a profit planning and control process and in that way not only have identified the two most important functions of budgets in organizations, but have also presented budgeting process in a wider context than it is usually depicted. Figure 5 clearly shows that the budgeting process is more than just a process of combining quantitative financial plans. It is a tool with which top management cascades strategy goals to operating levels. Budgets are ideal for this purpose since they are in essence the detailed quantification of targets for short-term choices of actions. Before continuing, it mu st be emphasised here that budgeting is not planning it is just the quantification of planning.Since the budget is fundamentally a plan, planning is the first important element of budgeting work. Planning is one of the elementary functions of management. It is the process of developing enterprise objectives and selecting a future course of action to accomplish them. It includes establishing enterprise objectives, developing premises about the environment in which they are to be accomplished, selecting a course of action for accomplishing the objectives, initiating activities necessary to learn plans into action and current replanning to correct deficiencies (Welsch, Hilton, Gordon, 1988, p. 3). It is a phase that involves the interpretation of the broader strategic policies derived during the formulation of strategy and their translation into more specific shorter-range plans. Once these short-term plans are quantified, they become budgets. That is why in many instances short-term planning and budgetary planning are used as synonyms. However, as figure 6 will show, connection between planning and budgeting is not isolated from influences of other elements that constitute corporate planning system and it is precisely the coherent functioning of the complete system that allows corporate planning to be implemented, period by period, through the budgetary process and its two elementary phases budgetary planning and budgetaryControl (Lucey, 1996, p. 104). away from the purposes of setting desired objectives and goals and linking them with strategic long-range and tactical short-range plans, the fundamental objective of management planning within budgeting system is to provide a feedforward process for operations and control. It is this feedforward process that renders the planning phase of the budgeting system vitally important since it allows control and corrections of plans before they are even implemented. The difference between feedback and feedforward conce pts is that feedback monitors past results to detect and correct disturbances to the plan, while feedforward reacts to immediate or forthcoming dangers by making adjustments to the system in advance in order to cope with the problem on time, i.e. feedback monitors, feedforward warns (Lucey,1996, p. 144). Since in any organizations it is unlikely that pure feedforward or pure feedback control could operate in isolation because feedback control is too slow, while feedforwardcontrol is too risky, these two concepts usually function within a single budgeting system as can be seen in figure 7.2.6. Budgets as control devices At the beginning of the period, the budget is a plan. At the end of the period, the budget is a control device to measure performance against expectations so that future performance may be improved. Control is achieved through continuous reporting of actual progress and expenditures relative to plans i.e. budgets (Shim, Siegel, 1994, p. 15). The aim of budgetary contr ol is to provide a white-tie basis for monitoring the progress of the organization as a whole and of its component parts towards achievement of the objectives specified in budgets (Lucey, 1996, p. 147). Budgetary control process usually functions in a closed loop. This loop, which is illustrated in figure 8, starts with the planning phase, then records actual transactions, and finally reports against the plan and generates management response.In accounting literature, budgeting is also known as responsibility accounting. This substance that plans and the resulting information on the performance of the plans are expressed in terms of human responsibilities because it is people, not reports that control operations. We can define responsibility accounting as a system of accounting in which costs and revenues are analysed in accordance with areas of personal responsibilities so that the performance of the budget holders can be monitored in financial terms (Lucey, 1996, p. 147). So the crucial thing for profit control is the division of authority and responsibility to managers. This means that managers should accept responsibility only over those figures that they have control. However, in practice, controllability1 is difficult to pinpoint for at least two reasons (Horngren, Foster, Datar, 2000, p. 195)Few costs are clearly under the sole influence of one manager.Over a long enough time span, all costs will come under somebodys control.For this reason, companies, on board traditional responsibility centres2, also usually set up budget centres. These can be defined as a part of an organization for which a given manager has responsibility and authority and to which profit control data can be assigned (Harper,1995, p. 320).For budgeting control purposes, a special type of budget is prepared called the flexible budget. In order to understand why only those budgets can be used for the accurate measurement of performance, firstly the difference between them and fixed budgets must be explained. The fixed budget is based on the level of output planned at the start of the budget period. On the other hand, the flexible budget is developed using budgeted revenues or cost amounts based on the level of output actually achieved in the budget period (Horngren, Foster, Datar, 2000, p. 220). For this reason, from a control viewpoint, the fixed budget is likely to be inappropriate (unless by pure chance the actual level of activity turns out to be the alike(p) as the planned level which is highly unlikely) and should not be used for control purposes. It is with respect to this sort of budget that the old saying the budget is out of date before the budget period even begins is often a correct one (Harper, 1995, p. 336).2.7. Benefits and problems associated with traditional budgetingIt is claimed that today as many as 99 percent of European and US companies are using budgets and have no intention of abandoning them (Better Budgeting A report, 2004, p. 2). H owever, on the same page, it is stated that as many as 60 percent of those companies claim that they are not completely satisfied with their current budgeting systems and are continuously trying to improve them (ibid., p. 3). From this evidence, it is obvious that budgets carry with them many benefits and problems.Here is a list of some of the benefits that traditional budgeting can bring into organization ifproperly implemented and administered (Lucey, 1996, p. 161)It is a major formal way by which the organizational objectives are translated into specific plans, tasks and objectives related to individual managers and supervisors.It is an important medium for communication of organizational plans and objectives and of the progress made towards meeting those objectives.The development of budgets helps achieve coordination between the various departments and functions of the organization.The involvement of all levels of management in setting budgets, the acceptance of defined targets , the two way flow of information and other features of a properly organized budgeting system all help to promote a coalition of interest and to increase motivation.Managements time can be saved and attention direct to areas of greatest concern by the exception principle which is at the heart of budgetary control.Performance at all levels is imperiousally reported and monitored thus aiding the control of current activities.The investigation of operations and procedures, which is part of budgetary planning and the subsequent monitoring of expenditure, may lead to reduced costs and greater efficiency.The regular systematic monitoring of results compared to the plan (i.e. the budget) provides information upon which current operations are adjusted to bring them into line with the previous plan or, adjustments are made to the plan itself where this becomes necessary.The integrating of budgets makes it possible to better manage cash and working capital and makes stock and buying policie s more realistic.Nobody has better summarized in one sentence all the advantages of traditional budgeting as did Umapathy in his major work on budgeting practices in U.S. industry from 1987.Umapathy stated There is no other managerial process that translates soft mission statements and corporate strategies into action plans, links the short-term with the long-term, brings together managers from different hierarchical levels and from different functional areas, and at the same time provides continuity by the sheer regularity of the process (Umapathy, 1987, p. xxii). It is exactly because of this that budgets will soon celebrate their century long existence.Since budgets encompass so many different functions and are used for so many things in organizations, it is obvious to expect them to have certain weaknesses. A group of authors at the Cranfield School of Management made an extensive review of budgeting literature. As part of their research, they identified 12 significant weakness es of traditional planning and budgeting practices. These factors fall into three principal categories and can be listed as follows (Neely, Bourne, Adams, 2003, p. 23)Competitive strategyBudgets are rarely strategically focused and are often contradictory.Budgets concentrate on cost reduction and not value creation.Budgets constrain responsiveness and flexibility, and are often a barrier to change.Budgets add little value since they tend to be bureaucratic and discourage creative thinking.Business processBudgets are time consuming and costly to put together.Budgets are developed and updated too infrequently, usually annually.Budgets are based on unsupported assumptions and guesswork.Budgets encourage gaming and dysfunctional behaviour. organizational capacityBudgets strengthen vertical command and control.Budgets do not reect the emerging network structures that organizations are adopting.Budgets reinforce departmental barriers rather than encourage knowledge sharing.Budgets make pe ople feel undervalued.Furthermore, one of the biggest problems with budgets is that they tend to promote an inward-looking, short-term culture that focuses on achieving a budget figure, rather than on implementing business strategy and creating shareholder value over the medium to long term. For all these reasons, it is believed that these weaknesses lead collectively towards business underperformance and should therefore be dealt with (ibid).The above listed benefits and disadvantages of budgeting system have been present since the first d

War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells Essays -- War Worlds H.G. Wells Essays

War of the Worlds by H.G. WellsHomo-Superior?War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells is a fiction bill written round war and mankinds coming of age. It is also a philosophical legend with many deep meanings underlying the shallow tone one-hundred-eighty-eight page book. The subject of this novel is Science Fiction and there argon not many that can even compete with Wells in price of how superior his word descriptions ar. He simply does wonders with the imagination of the reader. Obviously the whole book is about the struggle mankind faces, but it is not always with aliens, they are actually more of a good way to represent what Wells really believed. He believed man is dominant, yet should remember how big the universe is and that the speculation of life far more intelligent than ours is very great.The narrator, who is also the main character tells War of the Worlds in first person. He describes everything from the mans denial, to the invasion, the battles, and the aftermath. I n the beginning he discusses the possibility of other life forms existing. When the aliens invade they do not communicate, just organize and destroy all resistance and population centers. The causality journeys along all of England fleeing the invaders and always being updated from various people about the news. The climax comes when he walks into a town to find all the aliens dead from bacteria, and the denouement is when he finds his wife. The movie Independence Day is the best way to describe this story to someone who has never read the book before. The two are strikingly similar. In both the aliens invade without warning and destroy everything with their superior technology. People know about the aliens before they arrive ahead of time in all(prenominal) story, but do nothing because of denial and public hysteria. The study and autopsy of aliens are described in the two. There are differences though. There are no heroes in the book, but in the movie there are. Our technology is useless in the book and in the movie it wins it for us. In a sense the endings are the same because a computer virus is what causes the aliens shields to go pot in the movie and biological viruses kill the aliens in the book. Still when I think about it, Independence Day is the best way to modernize the story.Pre World War One England is the setting for the story. It fits ... ... the stupidity and courage of men. He did a great line of reasoning of doing both. This book is really a classic because so many people know about it and still read it today, and it is over a hundred old age old It reminds me of how the U.S is today. Sure we are the greatest nation on the planet, however we still need to be reminded that we do not control everyone. We should be more humble and that is how the author felt as well. All the time I see on the news how people rebel and complain about stuff. When it comes down to it they dont do jack They just want to bitch about how t he system cheats them. There were characters in the book like this in the novel too. The most significant thing to me in the whole book, and Im sure it is to most readers too, is the fact that germs killed the aliens. Not some secret weapon, or a hero, but the every day cold. This really humbles man. In the end there is hope. The hope that man finally understands that he is not so great and how fortunate he can be. Hope that we will learn from our mistakes and take them to heart so that if this happens again, we will be ready. So the one question remains, and I exit it up to youare we Homo-Superior?

anthropology Essay -- essays research papers

Anthropology proves to be satisfying andintellectually fulfilling to many in the field.However, there are also many challenges and bumps inthe road along the way. Napolean A. Chagnon andClaire Sterk faced many of these challengesthemselves.During his fieldwork with the Yanomamo, Chagnon facedmany challenges interacting with the natives. Chagnoncould not practically communicate with the peopleuntil about six-spot months after he arrived. He notes ?the hardest thing to live with was the incessant,passioned, and often aggressive demands they wouldmake.? An example of this is the natives threateningwith a shout such as ?If you don?t take me with youon your next boat trip to Widokalyateri, I?ll chop ahole in your canoe? While trying to collectgenealogies, Chagnon be it very frustrating andcommented ? I could not have deliberately picked amore difficult people to work with in this regard.?This was because he first well-tried to use the names theycalled each other, not knowing that the names theycalled each other were completely ambiguous and didn?tmean anything. He then posterior found out , aftercollecting all the genealogical information, that onlythe living members were accurate and the deceasedlisted were mostly fake. He had to start all over. (Chagnon 5)Sterk did a different type of study on prostitutionand how it went on during a time when AIDS was a majorproblem. This type of fieldwork is ethnographicfieldwork. Sterk had to get realized in roughneig...

Bottlenose Dolphins Essay -- Papers

Bottlenose DolphinsThis essay is NOT formattedBottlenose dolphins ar among the most vocal of the nonhuman animals and exhibit remarkable development of the sound production and auditive mechanisms. This can be seen in audition, which is shown in the animals highly refined echolocation ability, and in tightly organized schools in which they live that are made up by sound communication. In testing the communication skills of dolphins, extensive studies drive been done on vocal mimicry, in which the animal imitates computer-generated sounds in order to test motor control in terms of cognitive ability. Language comprehension on the other hand has been tested through labeling of objects, which has turn up to be successful regarding the association of sound and object stimulus. The biggest question in dolphin communication, is whether or not the species is capable of intentional communicative acts. Though results from studies have been debatable, the key to understanding the extent to t his language is to determine whether they have a repertoire of grammatical rules that generate organized sequences. In determining this, the greatest achievement for both the scientist and all of humanity, would be to accomplish interspecies communication, creating a bridge between humans and animals which could open up a new understanding of the little-known world of wildlife. Most importantly, it is necessary to understand the incredible aptitude of dolphin communicative skills, and the impressive intelligence the animal possesses which allows for a great deal of intraspecific and interspecies communication (Schusterman, Thomas, & Wood, 1986). The acoustical reception and processing abilities of the bot... ...eday. McCowan, B., Hanser, S. F., & Doyle, L.R. (1999). Quantitative tools for comparing animal communication systems information theory applied to bottlenose dolphin tin whistle repertoires. Animal Behaviour, 57, 409-419. Popov, V. V., & Supin, A. Y. (1991). Interaural intensity and latency difference in the dolphins auditory system. Neuroscience Letters, 133, 295-297. Schusterman, R. J., Thomas, J. A., & Wood, F. G. (1986). Dolphin Cognition and Behavior A Comparitive Approach. London Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Shane, S. H. (1991). Smarts. Seafrontiers, 37, 40-43. Supin, A. Y., Popov, V. V., & Klishin, V. O. (1993). ABR Frequency adjust Curves in Dolphins. Journal of Comparitive Psychology A, 173, 649-656.Tyack, P. L.,& Sayigh, L. S. (1989). These Dolphins Arent Just Whistling in the Dark. Oceanus, 32, 80-83.